The talk explores what mistakes were made with regard to the semi-periphery by focusing on two pivotal countries that were mostly left out of the liberal international order (LIO) in the 1990s even though they sought to belong: Russia and Turkey. The LIO never settled on a consistent policy regarding their incorporation. Halfway recognition—or alternating between inclusion and exclusion—is even worse than aloofness or full alienation because it first creates expectations and then creates resentment when those expectations are not met. This lesson has present day implications for Ukraine as well.
